Bipeadleism

Muscular system involved in Bipeadleism

Foot muscles:  Inferior extensor retinaculm, Extensor digitorum brevis, Extensor hallucis brevis, Adductor hallucis, Flex. hallucis brevis, Interosseus, flex. digiti minimi brevis, Opponens digiti minimi, Quadratus plantae, Abductor hallucis, Abd. digiti minimi, Lumbricals, Flex. digitorum brevis, Planter aponeurosis.  

Posterior leg mussels:  Tibialis posterior, Flexor digitorum longus, Flexor hallucis longus, Popliteus, Plantaris, Soleus, Gastrocnemius 

Lateral leg mussels:   Peroneus longus, Peroneus brevis 

Anterior leg mussels: Tibialis anterior, Extensor digitorum longus, Extensor hallucis longus, Peroneus tertius

Anterior thigh mussels:  Sartorius, Quadriceps femoris, Rectus femoris, Vastus lateralis, Vastus  intermedius, Vastus medialis

Medeial thigh mussels:  Pectineus, Adductor brevis, Adductor longus, Adductor magnus, Gracilis

Posterior thigh mussels:  Semimembranosus, Semitendinosus, Biceps femoris 

Gluteal region mussels:  Gluteus maxaimus, Gluteus mediums, Gluteus minimums, Tensor fasciae latae, Piriforumis, Obturator internus, Obturator externus, Quadratus femoris, Gemellus superior gemellus inferior 

Torso mussels:  Inferior, Erector spinae 


Skeletal system involved in Bipeadleism 

-The two hip bones, sacrum and coccyx,form weight being arch with the sacrum directing the body weight to the thigh bones while giving consideration to the line of gravity which passes in front of the sacroiliac and behind the hip joints without a bend

-Femur is the longest bone in the body and is curved directly obliquely inward such that the feet are directly under the weight of the body

-Tibia transmits the body weight to the ankle joint directly

-Tarsal bones and short phalanges are mobile weight bearing structures, architecture of the bones and reinforcement of ligaments/muscle influence form arches, longitudinal and transverse. This absorbs shock and balances the body

-Longitudinal arch transmits the force of body weight to the ground when standing and to the great toe in locomotion

-Knee joint is one of the two most complicated joints in the body, for it must bear the entire body weight in balance and provide freedom of movement in locomotion.

QUARIPEDAL VS BIPEDAL MOVEMENT

• Quadripedal locomotion is faster but requires more energy. 
• Bipedalist movement evolved at least 4 million years ago. 
• Bipedalism is a characteristic of humans that is thought to be one of the traits that evolved very early in the human lineage. Compared to quaripedal organisms, in bipeds the pelvis is more bowl-shaped, the upper legs are angled inward from the hip joints, the foot is shorter with more rigid toes (to help push off), the spine is shortened and S-shaped (for rigidity and balance).All of these skeletal adjustments are part of the evolutionary modifications that gradually evolved in our ancient ancestors as they became increasingly upright in stature and diverged from their quadruped ancestors. 

The Comparison Between Human and Chimps

• DNA-humans and chimps share 85 to 95% of the same genes. Chimpanzees have 48 chromosomes, two more than humans. It is thought that this is because in a human ancestor, two pairs of chromosomes fused into a single pair
• Brain Size- The brain of a chimpanzee has a volume of 370mL on average. In contrast, humans have a brain size of 1350mL on average.
• Sociability- Chimpanzees have about 50 close friends and acquaintances, whereas humans have between 150 and 200.Chimpanzees strengthen friendships by spending extensive time grooming each other. Humans spend a comparable time socializing, albeit more through talking than grooming.
• Walking Upright- Both humans and chimps can walk bipedally.Chimpanzees will often do this to see further ahead, but prefer to move on all fours. Humans walk upright since infancy and have evolved bowl-shaped pelvises to support their internal organs while doing so. Chimpanzees, leaning forward during movement, do not need to support their organs with their pelvis and so have broader hips. This makes childbirth much easier for chimpanzees than for humans, whose bowl-shaped pelvis is in opposition to a large birth canal. Human feet are straight with toes at the front to help push directly ahead when walking, whereas chimpanzee feet have opposable big toes and are more like strong hands than feet.
• Tool Use- Although humans used to be thought of as the only species to be able to use tools, both humans and chimpanzees are able to modify their environment to forge tools to help with daily challenges. Chimpanzees will make spears, use stones as hammers and anvils, and mash leaves into a pulp to use as makeshift sponges. It is thought that as a result of walking upright, our front limbs were much freer to use tools, and we have refined tool use to an art.

My resultes for walking and running on the track 

Walking

• Frequency:  166 steps/ 1:23
• Length:  166 steps/ 100 meeters 
• Rate:  100 meeters/ 1:23

Running

• Frequency:  76 steps/ 22:08 secconds 
• Lenght:  76 steps/ 100 meeters
• Rate:  100 meeters/ 22:08 seconds 

Galapagos movie

Animals that live on the Galapagos arrived long ago and after thousands of years of natural selection have transformed


Marine eguana found only on the Galapagos

NATURAL SELECTION

Charles Darwin belived that nature chose what animals looked like/ what trats they had.

Example: There is a breed of bird on an island and the main sorce of food on the islan is nuts.  And some birds have beeks that are slightly bigger than the rest of the birds.  The birds with the bigger beeks live because they can crack the hard shell to the nuts.  Since thies birds lived they get to reproduce and pass on their big beek jean to the future generations of birds.

THE DISCOVERY OF NATURAL SELECTION

Charles Darwin came up with the idea of natural selection after comeing home from a long 5 year voyage around the world on the Beagle.  While Darwin is in the Galapagos Islands he collected 13 varieties of Fintchs.  He noticed that the fintches looked vary similar to the type of Fintch that lived on the mainland of South America.  He discovered that all the Fintches from the Galapagose descended from the Fintch that lived in South America, and the reason the Galapagos Fintches were different for the South American Fintch was because they were eash indovisualy fitted for the enviorment on their island.

Example: there is a type of Fintch that lives in the Galapagose that is called the Vampire Fintch.  The one island that this Fintch lives on is full of Seals.  There is no other sore of food on the island except for the Seals.  So the Fintchs beaks evolved into thies long, pointy, sharp beaks that they uses to pearce the Seals bluber and get to its blood, so the Fintch can eat.  Remember natural selection took place as the Vampire Fintch whent from an nut eating bird to a blood bricking bird.  The Fintches with the longer/sharper beaks could get to the Seals blood better than the Fintches with the shorter beaks.  Thows Fintches with the shorter breeks died because they could not access their food sorce.  The Fintchs with the longer beaks lived and were able to bread and pass on their long beak jean to their offspring.  

- Darwin's theory of evolution was very unorthodox. Went against all churches and former history in the UK.
- All forms of life on earth evolved from a single branch of life.
- Darwin made this discovery through his exploration of the Gallpagos islands.
- he examined the different species of finch and how their beaks were relative to the food that they ate
- He also founded the theory of natural selection, which he thought was the key to evolution. In the struggle for existence, those individuals with favorable variations would survive and reproduce, but those with unfavorable variations wouldn't.

He had a list of basic processed that goes as follows:
1. All species are capable of producing offspring at a faster rate than food supplies increase.
2. There is biological variation within all species.
3. Since in each generation more offspring are produced then can survive, and because of limited resources, there is competition among individuals.
4. Individuals who possess favorable variations or traits (for example, speed, resistance to disease, protective coloration) have an advantage over those who don't have them. In other words, they have greater fitness because favorable traits increase the likelihood of survival and reproduction.
5. The environmental context determines wether or not a trait is beneficial. What is favorable in one setting may be liability in another. Consequently, the traits that become most advantageous are the results of a natural process.
6. Traits are inherited and passed on to the next generation. Because individuals who possess favorable traits contribute more offspring to the next generation than others do, over time, those favorable traits become more common in the population. Less favorable characteristics aren't
Passed as frequently, so they become less common overtime and are weeded out. Individuals who producd more offspring in comparison to others are said to have greater reproductive success or fitness.
7. Over long periods of geological time, successful variations accumulate in a population, so that later generations may be distant from ancestral ones. Thus, in time, a new species may appear.

Linguistic anthropology
- the study of human speech and language
- linguists have been able to trace historical ties between languages and groups of languages thus facilitating the identification of language families and perhaps past relationships between human populations
- Linguistic anthropology explores how language shapes communication, forms social identity and group membership, organizes large-scale cultural beliefs and ideologies, and develops a common cultural representation of natural and social worlds.

There are three paradigms: 

Anthropological linguistics - Documentation of languages thought at the time to be extinct. This focused on grammatical description and Typological classification.


Ethnography - Focusing mainly on speech. More specifically the speech event., which is a situation in which speech may or may not occur.

Issues studied via data and linguistic methods - Investigation of social identities, broadly shared ideologies, and the construction and uses of narrative in interaction among individuals and groups.

Cultural (Social) Anthropology

Cultural Anthropology is the study of cultural variation among humans. It is mostly studied and researched through the use of observation, interviews, and surveys.

Social Anthropology is studied under the same heading as Cultural Anthropology in the United States but across the United Kingdom and much of Europe it is it's own separate branch of Anthropology. Social Anthropology mainly concerns how humans interacted socially over long periods of time and in many different places. This includes social practices such as childrearing, gender relations, laws, customs, economics, and any other social interaction that people engaged in.

Physical Anthropology

Physical anthropology (aka biological anthropology) is the study of human biology  in the framework of evolution along with the interaction between biology and culture.

Physical anthropology covers topicas like...

• Genetics 
• Evolutionary biology 
• Nutrition
• Physiological adaptation
• Growth
• Development

Paleoanthrology (the study of anatomical and behavioral human evolution ) is a subfield of Physical anthropology.